Evaluation on two theories of cognitive development

Evaluation on two theories of cognitive development This essay I will look at the similarity and the differences between Piagets and Vygotskys theories in explanation of child cognitive development. Particularly it will describe their theories on the importance of social interactions in influencing development. I will give a brief overview of the four stages of Piagets theories. Piagets and Vygotskys theories will then be evaluate, with key terms explained. I aim to show that Vygotskys theory placed far more emphasis on social interactions in childrens cognitive development than Piaget, and that their theories were informed by their own cultural influence. Cognitive development theory explains how humans obtain and construct knowledge of themselves and their planet. The theory of cognitive development was first proposed by Jean Piaget, however there are other major theoretical approaches to cognitive development, as well as those of Vygotsky. Piaget approached the subject from a biological and life perspective, while Vygotsky approached the subject from an environmental and culture perspective. I will look at the impact both theories have had on child development, I will, also look at the differences along with others, as well as the resemblance of Piagets and Vygotskys theories and evaluate them. Piagets theory focuses on intelligence and how it changes as children grow up. While, Vygotskys theory centres on the social action and he defines intelligence as the capacity to learn from teaching. We will also look at the impact both Piaget and Vygotskys theories have had on education and how they have been applied to education. Piagets theory is about child intellectual development and the gaining of knowledge. While Vygotskys main theory was how culture influence development, through language and the society. Jean Piaget was born on August 1896 and died 1980 (56 years old), he studied the development of childrens understanding, through examing and paying attention to children while he carried out his experiments. According to Piaget cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities with environmental events and progresses through a series of hierarchical, qualitative different and stages (Gross 2005). All children pass through Piaget stages in the same level without missing anyone of them, except if the child has brain damage or brain problem. Rather than trying to explain individual differences why some children are more intelligent than others Piaget was interested in how intelligence itself changes as children grow (Gross 2010). Important feature of Piagets theory was schemas, Piaget saw schema as mental structures which organise past experiment and provide a means of understanding future experiences. As we grow so our schema become increasingly complex (Gross 2005). Assimilation, Accommodation and Equilibration are the three courses of Adaptation expressed by Piagets theory. Assimilation is the process by which we incorporate new information into existing schema. For example babies will reflexively suck a nipple and other objects, such as a finger (Gross 2010). Accommodation into schemas enables children to make sense of and deal with the world. Piaget argues that children are active in exploring the world and, in general, do not need instruction or examples from others to develop their cognitive abilities. Development will take place solely through the childs own actions on the environment in a form of discovery learning where others are facilitators not teachers. Piagets Stages theory of Cognitive Development, Piaget suggests that all children develop through four stages and they all develop in the same role, these stages are Sensori-motor, Pre-operational, Concrete operational and Formal operational. The first stage was Sensori-motor stage which initially occurs from birth to two years of childs life. Infants learn about the world primarily through their sense (sensori-), and by doing (motor) (Gross 2005).An important discovery during the sensori-motor stage is the object permanence. An infant will look where an object disappears for a few moment but wont search for it. If the object doesnt reappear the infant apparently loses interest. Piagets demonstrate the limited object performance of babies between eight and twelve months. They can retrieve a hidden object only from its original hiding place, not where it was last hidden. Not until about twelve months will they search under the cushion where they last saw the object hidden (Gross 2005). The second stage was Pre-operational stage this take place between the age of two and four years. The infant begins to utilise symbols to classify objects. Objects are also personified by the infant and they are able to think about events that are not directly present. The infant is not yet able to conceptualise time. At this stage the infant will take information and adjust it to fit his ideas. The child tends to be influenced by the things seen, rather than by logical principles or operations (Gross 2010). According to Piaget pre-operational children are egocentrism that is they see the world from their own standpoint and cannot appreciate that other people might see things differently, they can not put themselves in other peoples shoes (Gross 2005). Also Piaget study of conservation is the understanding that any quantity such as fluid, numbers or lengths remains the same regardless of a visual change for example, if a fluid is transfer from a short large glass to a high slim glass a child at this stage would say that there was more liquid in the slim glass or that there was more fluid in the large glass. The third stage was Concrete Operations stage, this take place between the ages of seven to eleven years. This stage the child is now capable of performing logical operations, but only in the presence of actual objects (Gross 2010). One remaining problem for the concrete operational child is transitivity task (Gross 2005). For example, if you tell a child that Jean is taller than Pat and Pat is taller than Carol and asked whether Jean or Carol is taller, children under eleven cannot solve this problem entirely in their heads, they can only solve it using real objects such as toys. The last stage was Formal Operations stage this take place at the age of eleven to fifteen years and associates the individual with no longer requiring concrete objects to make rational judgments. The individual is capable of deductive and hypothetical reasoning and their ability of thinking is similar to that of an adult. Lev Vygotsky was born the same year as Piaget (1896, died 1934) was particularly interested in the relationship between being taught by adults and the child cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same time as Piaget, Vygotskys theory is known as the social development theory. Vygotsky and Piaget agree that development doesnt occur in a vacuum, knowledge is constructed as a result of the childs active interaction with the environment (Gross 2010). Vygotsky outline alternative to Piagets theory. Vygotsky believed that cognitive learning was a social event, which through language and interaction with other children and adults, children would begin to learn about and challenge their surroundings. Three themes unified Vygotskys theory of social constructivism and they are: Culture, central role of language and the zone of proximal growth (Oates et al. 2005). Cultural tools are what the child inherits, these can be technological such as bicycles and other physical devices (Gross 2005). Culture tool can pass from one individual to another copied learning. Instructed learning Involves remembering the instructions of the teacher and then using these instructions to learn. Children dont need to reinvent the world anew as Piaget seemed to believe. They can benefit from the accumulated wisdom of previous generations (Gross 2005). The central role of language, as a child begins to speak, his thought processes also begin to develop. In essence, it is language which directs behaviour. Vygotsky describes three stages in the development of speech. Each of these three stages of speech has its own function. Speech Stages are Social Speech (external speech), Egocentric Speech, and Inner Speech. Social Speech (external speech) at this stage a child uses speech to direct the behaviour of others. A child uses speech to communicate feelings and emotions such as weeping when hungry and laughing when happy. Egocentric Speech In this stage, a child often talk to him or herself, regardless of someone paying attention to them. At this speech stage they think out loud, they may also talk about what they are doing as they are doing it, they reason that language must be said to direct their behaviour (slideshare.net, 29/01/11). Inner Speech is a soundless speech used by older children and adults. It allows us to direct our thinking and behaviour. Here we are able to engage in all forms of higher mental functions. In this stage one is able to count in ones head, use logical memory-inherent relationships, and inner signs (slideshare.net, 29/01/11). The zone of proximal development (ZPD) defined those functions that havent yet matured but are in the process of maturing (Vygotsky, 1978). Scaffolding refers to the kind of guidance and support adults provide children in the zone of proximal development by which children acquire their knowledge and skills (Wood Wood, 1996), although scaffolding those not actually explain how children internalise what the teacher provides (Gross 2005). Piagets and Vygotskys theories have same things in common, both hold a constructive view, Piagets assimilation look like Vygotskys appropriation, however they disagree on point of influence of social interactions in childrens cognitive development. Vygotskys theory emphasise the value of language and social interaction in a childs cognitive development. Vygotsky recognised the importance that different culture can take part in a childs cognitive development. In conclusion, Piagets stage theory is useful in describing the basic process of child cognitive development. However, because development cannot take place in the social vacuum, Piagets theory is limited. Vygotskys emphasis on social interactions influence better accounts for the everyday development of childrens cognitive abilities. when you evaluate Piagets to Vygotskys you clearly note that, both theories agreed that the child must mentally construct knowledge, on the other hand, Vygotsky placed emphasis on the role of social interaction in this construction process. Vygotsky also placed emphasis on culture in shaping cognitive development. Gross, R. (2005), Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour, 5th Edition, Hodder and Stoughton. Oates, J., Wood, C. and Grayson, A. (2005) Psychological development and early childhood, Oxford, Blackwell. Vygotsky, L.S (1978) mind in society, Cambridge, MA: Harvard university press Wood, D wood, H. (1996) Vygotsky, tutoring and learning. Oxford review of education, 22, 5-16. http://www.slideshare.net/guestf3585b/lev-semyonovich-vygotsky (29/01/2011)

A Marketing Plan Essay

Firms that are successful in marketing invariably start with a marketing plan. The plan should cover one year. For small companies, this is often the best way to think about marketing. Things change, people leave, markets evolve, and customers come and go. In many respects, the Marketing Plan is the most important document produced by marketers as it not only helps to justify what has occurred in the past, but is critical for explaining where a company intends to go in the future. The first step is the Situation Analyses. The purpose of the situation analysis is to indicate to a company about the organizational and product position, as well as the overall survival of the business, within the environment. This allows for the evaluation of the company’s objectives, strategy and capabilities. These areas indicate to an organization about the strength of the product or whether there are areas for improvement, as well as how well an organization will fit with the external environment. I will take as particular case, one of my company’s products, namely, the book I’ve written â€Å"Unique and Different†. Considering the concept of the entire project we are carrying and that is to start making some changes around, to start, step by step, being satisfied by the world we live in, we begun by outlining our own experiences and perceptions in our first book. If we look at the things around us from a reserved point of view, the situation is difficult enough due to the external factors, such as: – Continuous change – people deal every day with novelty and need to keep up with the changes and often forget to answer their true body and mind needs. Continuous technology development – due to this type of development people tend use every day, more and more the smart technology forgetting the â€Å"old fashioned† way to broaden their universe. – Demanding society – society demands more and more, forces the humans to act like robots and despite some hidden desire to give time to such relaxation moments, choose not to – out of capping to every day schedules. Decrease of the life quality – enslaved to a robotic life and forced to act as the society requests the quality of people’s lives is decreasing every day, being hard enough to start taking it from the beginning and understanding that above all they count the most These are just a few of the aspects that could harden the fulfillment of the set goal. The second step would be the SWOT analyses which is a structured planning method used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats involved in a project or in a business. Setting the objective should be done after the SWOT analysis has been performed. This would allow achievable goals or objectives to be set for the organization. Identification of SWOT is important because they can inform later steps in planning to achieve the objective. †¢ Strengths: the strength of the product could be characterized as mentioned above through: novelty, will to change, perspective, broaden the universe, awareness of one’s needs, discovering truths about one self and so on. This is considerably a step ahead of any other â€Å"writer† because this is intended not to be a novel well sold but a book that teaching you to get to know yourself in a different playful way. Weaknesses: contrary to the strengths mentioned above – a weak side would be exactly this – the fact that people forgot how to live their lives and became robotic, enslaved by the demands of a poor society. People have closed their eyes to the exact truth that lies before them. †¢ Opportunities: in my company’s case the elements that the project could exploit to its advantage would be exactly the point where we, as a society stand right now. The society is weaken, is confused, does not know whom to obey anymore or if it is of any purpose to do it and thus, this would be the perfect time to start doing some changes and create their own path. Threats: the basic elements in the environment that could cause trouble for our project are thin lines that lay between our project and those who just want to become some type of over night writers, by selling what everybody sell these days. It is difficult to explain to people right now that something could be different if they just gave it a try. The third step is building a strategic marketing plan and here most people fall into the trap of thinking that â€Å"marketing† just means advertising, PR or promotion. But marketing and a marketing plan is so much more than that, and includes everything from understanding the market to which you’ll sell your products and services, to choosing specific tactics you’ll use to reach that market. Building a strategic marketing plan is know where to place your products, when to place it, to whom start addressing and how to address exactly. The forth step is marketing mix strategy. Marketing mix is a strategy that has been formulated after taking into consideration the 4P’s of marketing: product, price, place and promotion. This marketing mix comprises four components namely; Product, Price, Place and Promotion. These four components are popularly known as the 4P’s of marketing mix. A marketer has to use a combination of these 4P’s to develop a profit-yielding strategy. The 4 Ps – establish the exactly the place of the product, where is situated, the targeted section of market and to whom is addressed. Promotion carries a high importance especially considering the fact that we are talking about a book. And of course The fifth step is the marketing budget is an estimated projection of costs required to promote a business’ products or services. A marketing budget will typically include all promotional costs, including marketing communications like website development, advertising and public relations, as well as the costs of employing marketing staff and utilizing office space. The costs in a marketing budget will be allocated according to the campaign and the media to be utilized. Some prior research will be necessary for the cost estimates to be as realistic as possible. Knowledge of key industry and market factors must be taken into account when developing your marketing plan. Your plan will also be influenced by researching your competition. You will want to allot funding in a way that exploits the weaknesses of your competitors and emphasizes your strengths. Considering that fact that our project is just starting and that the book is just one of the products it offers, it would be hard enough to analyze exactly the costs of just promoting the book, because generally we consider that the best way to present yourself is face to face, thus we are assisting as many fairs as possible – this way having the chance to meet people personally and present them the opportunity we offer, directly. Concluding – for the book, for now have been used online socializing networks and the presence to all the possible books fairs organized around the country. The sixth step is the marketing perform plan which may be part of an overall business plan. Marketing perform plan can function from two points: strategy and tactics. Behind the corporate objectives, which in themselves offer the main context for the marketing plan, will lay the â€Å"corporate mission,† which in turn provides the context for these corporate objectives. Having the same objective, performing a well established plan represents the basic step in achieving the set goal and acting in the direction of the future, seeing beyond today and developing a better tomorrow. The seventh step would be the perform evaluation. Annual performance reviews are a key component of employee development. The performance review is intended to be a fair and balanced assessment of an employee’s performance. Annual performance reviews are a key component of employee development. The performance review is intended to be a fair and balanced assessment of an employee’s performance or of the achievement of a set goal. Everybody engaged in the entire process of the platform has well established goals to achieve and of course, well established terms to present their situation, Being about a platform the activity of the employees could be even more, analyzed and characterized by public – the public being the key factor that would position the project or that would situate it according to a percentage. And the eighth step is considered when adjusting the marketing plan as necessary after reviewing the annual balance or after analyzing the results of the set goals. After ongoing certain stages with a well planned goal – there is the need to and analyze the results of the goals and the exact position where we stand and if necessary start rethinking and adjusting the marketing plan or the spects which clearly didn’t answer our needs or expectations. Some aspects that could be rethought are: the way we address to people, the aspects we are trying to reach, the chosen moment /period, the benefits offered and a lot of other aspects – in this field having the possibility to joggle a lot with the way we put thing into action. Overall a marketing plan should state exactly what a business, company, project tries to emphasize and reach.

The Social Experience On-Campus or The Privacy of Living...

My best friend, Michael, and I were recently shopping around trying to determine where we were going to live starting in the fall next school year. We both spent this last semester on campus to fulfil Georgia Southern’s first-year requirement and both of us would be quick to agree that it definitely had its pros and cons. Before we started, we sat down and took a look at what on-campus and off-campus housing had to offer using a cost-to-benefit ratio. While living on-campus is great in the fact that you are able to walk to class faster, you are located closer to the meal hall, and you have the ability to go to the library without searching for a parking spot; due to the tolls it takes financially, socially, and personally in regards to†¦show more content†¦Sock on the doorknob or not, it’s still not cool. Furthermore, this obligatory social behavior can certainly lead to an impediment upon your schoolwork and grades. Several studies performed by the Office of R esearch and Evaluation of the University of California concluded that students who live on-campus are approximately 50% more likely to skip class due to socializing than their fellow classmates who live off-campus (Office of Research and Evaluation). By living in the dormitories a student has easier access to distracting influences. You are only a stone’s throw from the meal halls, only a short distance to the gym, and only a few floors from your friend’s room. Many would argue and say that living off-campus during freshman year of college is irresponsible. They would like to argue that being surrounded by people 24/7 is beneficial to the â€Å"college experience†. They would like to argue that there is a greater overall satisfaction in the students living on-campus as opposed to off-campus. They will even try to argue that on-campus residents are more likely to be involved in co-curricular activities and use campus facilities. 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Tim Burton s Work As A Director - 2501 Words

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